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On September 2, 2020, over 160 educators from across the United States joined a webinar titled “Angel Island Immigration Station: The Hidden History.” The Angel Island Immigration Station was located in San Francisco Bay and was operational from 1910 to 1940. It was established in order to control and enforce the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and other immigration-related laws that followed, e.g., the Immigration Act of 1924, which included the Asian Exclusion Act and the National Origins Act.

The featured speaker was Connie Young Yu, a writer, activist, and historian. Yu has written and spoken extensively about the contrasts between Ellis Island Immigration Station in New York Harbor—in which immigrants primarily from Europe were welcomed by an image of the Statue of Liberty—and Angel Island Immigration Station in San Francisco Bay where immigrants entering the United States primarily from Asia were detained and interrogated. The largest detained group of immigrants was from China. Reflecting on the webinar, Yu commented:

I was glad to share my “hidden history” during the 91�Թ� webinar, including the saving of the immigration barracks in the 1970s and my grandmother’s lengthy detention on Angel Island. The immigration station barracks—now a national monument—were nearly destroyed had it not been for Ranger Alexander Weiss and the activism of a citizens’ committee. The writing on the barracks’ walls by Chinese detainees still speaks to us today of peoples’ struggle against immigration exclusion and institutionalized racism.

The webinar can be viewed below.

Yu’s talk was followed by 91�Թ�’s Jonas Edman who worked with graphic artist Rich Lee to publish Angel Island: The Chinese-American Experience. Edman shared scenes and activities from this graphic novel that tell the story of Chinese immigrants who were detained at Angel Island Immigration Station. The graphic novel has been widely used nationally to educate students about immigration to the United States from China. Yu remarked, “I was thrilled to hear from Jonas Edman about the brilliant graphic novel, Angel Island: The Chinese American Experience. At last, as part of the curriculum, students can learn in living color about how the detainees struggled and endured, the human side of Chinese immigration exclusion.”

Given the prevalence of immigration-related news over the past several years, several teachers in attendance noted the importance for school curricula to include topics related to immigration history in the United States. Following the webinar, Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation’s Executive Director Edward Tepporn reflected:

Growing up in Texas, I didn’t learn about Angel Island and its significant role in our nation’s complex history until after I moved to the Bay Area… Especially as racism and xenophobia are on the rise in the U.S., it’s important to uplift the full history of how our nation has treated its diverse immigrant communities, including the injustices they have endured as well as their important contributions.

Edman suggests that teachers consider asking students essential questions like: How and why did U.S. immigration policy favor certain groups and not others? What impact did laws such as the U.S. federal law, Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, have on Chinese immigration to the United States? In what ways did Chinese immigrants advocate for themselves and actively respond to discrimination and exclusion? How is U.S. immigration policy similar and different today? Also, Edman highly recommends teachers to visit the , which includes excellent teaching resources, including primary sources.

The webinar was made possible through the support of the Freeman Foundation’s initiative. The webinar was a joint collaboration between 91�Թ� and Stanford’s . Special thanks to Dr. Dafna Zur, CEAS Director, and John Groschwitz, CEAS Associate Director, for their support; and to 91�Թ�’s Naomi Funahashi for facilitating the webinar and Sabrina Ishimatsu for planning the webinar.

The Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education (91�Թ�) unequivocally condemns the systemic racism that permeates U.S. society and fully supports the recent calls for social justice and equity. I have been so moved and inspired by the protests across the United States that have brought world-wide attention to the systemic racism in the United States. Because of my age and the stay-at-home orders, I regret that I have not been able to participate in the protests. It is not due to my indifference. My family—in particular in late 1941 and 1942—also suffered from what would be called “racial profiling” today.

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, my grandparents, who were immigrants from Japan, and my U.S.-born parents were forcibly removed by Executive Order 9066 from their homes in Salinas, California, in 1942 and detained initially in the Salinas Assembly Center, one of 15 temporary detention facilities along the West Coast for Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans. They were later transported to Poston War Relocation Center, which was built on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in the Arizona desert, and was one of ten more permanent detention camps that the U.S. government had initially referred to as concentration camps. They remained there until the end of World War II.

My father, as a high school student in Poston, became fully aware of not only the painful sting of scorpions but more importantly of the sting of indifference from Americans concerning their plight; and my mother, as an elementary school student, simply assumed that they had done something wrong because her family was surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers manned by U.S. soldiers with guns. During World War II, very few people spoke out as the constitutional rights of 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry—more than two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens—were violated.

As I listened to President Donald Trump’s June 13th remarks at the 2020 United States Military Academy at West Point graduation ceremony, I was hoping that he would—especially given the times—specifically mention Henry Ossian Flipper, a former slave, who in 1877 became the first African American to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point; as well as others like the African American Tuskegee Airmen who served valiantly in World War II. One of my uncles, who was drafted into the U.S. Army from Poston, trained with other Japanese American soldiers in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team in Camp Shelby, Mississippi. Around town, he saw the segregated entrances—“Whites Only” and “Colored Only”—and didn’t know which one to enter. He went to Europe to fight bigotry.

As a young student in the late 1950s and 1960s, I had never learned about these stories in my elementary and secondary school classes. I learned about them informally through my family and formally for the first time as a freshman in fall 1972 at U.C. Berkeley. Here I was taught that what I had learned in elementary and secondary school was the U.S. master narrative of history, in which the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, Henry Ossian Flipper, and Tuskegee Airmen were not included, at least at the time.

91�Թ� fully supports “to reassess our work and how we can move our local community, nation, and the world to achieve racial justice” in light of the horrific killing of George Floyd and the long, tragic history of racial injustice and police violence targeted at the Black community. 91�Թ�—with roots that date back to 1973—is an educational outreach program of FSI. The goal of making Stanford scholarship accessible to K–12 students (and more recently community college students) has remained as 91�Թ�’s mission since its establishment. Now—perhaps more than ever—I feel the need to do more to help open up the still strictly confined master narrative of U.S. history to include the Black Lives Matter movement and more broadly the contributions of minorities to U.S. society.

Long before terms like culturally relevant (or sensitive) curriculum were being used, 91�Թ� has underscored the importance of helping to raise international and cultural awareness—through curriculum development—geared to students at a young age, when critical attitudes are being formed. 91�Թ� is about to launch a website that is called “” The website’s lessons focus on topics like immigration, civil liberties & equity, civic engagement, justice & reconciliation, and leadership. It is meant as a starting point for critical discussions, including courageous conversations about race and discrimination. We hope that this is a modest starting point for teachers to encourage youth around the country to discuss topics like the Black Lives Matter movement, being Muslim in America, and LGBTQ issues.

Among 91�Թ�’s offerings are a series of short lectures (Scholars Corner and Multimedia Library) by Stanford scholars with accompanying teacher guides. One focuses on “The Use of Lethal Force by the Police in Rio de Janeiro and the Pacification Process” by in which she explores the connections between poverty, crime, and police violence—topics just as relevant in the contemporary United States as they are in Brazil. For many years, I have hoped to expand these further with scholars affiliated with the , which is directed by . Several years ago, 91�Թ� recorded a lecture by Professor Carson titled “Civil and Human Rights: The Martin Luther King, Jr. Legacy,” and I recommend its use in schools as his message is very timely. In addition, 91�Թ� has worked with educators of the Navajo Nation for many years; someday we hope to collaborate on a long-term project. One of the Navajo educators was a Stanford student in the 1960s and he shared his efforts to persuade Stanford to drop the Indian symbol as a mascot in 1972 despite resistance or indifference on the part of many in the Stanford community.

I agree with Professor Michael McFaul that “We must do better.” I definitely need to do better. 91�Թ� needs to do more to highlight BIPOC’s invaluable contributions to U.S. history and society and help to empower youth with a greater voice and platform today to address the systemic racism in the United States that is directly affecting their lives.

My mother, now 87, still vividly recalls the barbed wire that surrounded her as a 9-year-old American girl at the “assembly center” in Salinas in 1942. Reflecting upon the recent protests, she recently shared with me, “I imagine that Blacks feel like they have a fence around them all the time.” She also still nervously remembers the paranoia that her mother felt during World War II, and even after the war when her mother used to sometimes go outside in the middle of the night with a packed suitcase. After being escorted home by neighbors, she would tell her children that “She was going to Poston.” I know how much these stories still hurt me despite the passage of time. I believe that they help me to empathize as best I can with the plight of Black families in the United States today. But empathizing is not enough. We must ask ourselves, what more can we do to help take down the racial fences that still exist?

In 91�Թ�’s curriculum work, we always preface each lesson with organizing questions (essential or overarching questions) that we would like students to consider. I would like to pose three for us to consider during this time: What can we at 91�Թ� do to move our local community, the United States, and the world to achieve greater racial justice? What can 91�Թ� do to further make FSI/Stanford scholarship accessible to K–12 schools and community colleges ? What are the risks of remaining indifferent especially during times of crisis? These questions will be the driving force of our work in the weeks, months, and years ahead.

During multiple periods of economic crisis, the U.S. economy has depended on Mexican labor. The Bracero Program began during World War II during a massive labor shortage largely due to the military draft and the internment of Japanese Americans, a high percentage of whom worked in agriculture. Over 4.5 million contracts were awarded to over 2 million young male Mexican immigrants from 1942 to 1964 to work primarily in agriculture. The work of braceros, or “individuals who work with their arms,” to harvest fruits and vegetables across the United States was deemed essential. It was the largest guest worker program agreement in U.S. history. President Franklin Roosevelt noted, “Mexican farmworkers, brought to the United States in accordance with an agreement between our two governments,… are contributing their skill and their toil to production of vitally needed food.” Moreover, during the current COVID-19 pandemic, agricultural workers have been categorized as “essential workers” by the federal government. Yet, many of these workers lack legal status to work in the United States.

On June 2, 2020, Dr. Ignacio Ornelas Rodriguez, Archivist, 91�Թ� Special Collections and University Archives, spoke about the history of the Bracero Program and shared reflections on the current status of agricultural workers in a webinar to over 40 people, including many educators. He began by noting that because of writers like John Steinbeck, Americans have come to learn about the agricultural regions of the larger Monterey Bay Area, where Ornelas has focused his research. “Yet,” he stated, “little is known about the majority of the laborers who worked in these regions.”

Ornelas set the historical context for his talk by providing a broad sweep of the history of farm workers in California. He touched upon the work of indigenous people in the 18th century to grow the vast agricultural economy that surrounded the missions; Chinese immigrants who had previously worked on the Transcontinental Railroad from 1863; Mexican, Japanese, and Filipino agricultural workers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; African Americans who were initially recruited to develop cotton growing techniques in the Central Valley during the late 19th century; and White migrants arriving from Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and other states during the Great Depression.

Following this overview of California’s agricultural landscape, which Ornelas described as an “ethnic mosaic of the world,” he began his comments on the Bracero Program. He noted, “My interest… was ignited by my grandfather’s personal bracero journey. Who were these men? What were their contributions and why is so little known about how they view their work?" During his extensive research and conducting of oral histories with former braceros, he noted that he began to uncover previously underdiscussed perspectives that were often at odds with the most popular narratives regarding braceros. Ornelas noted that most of the braceros remembered their work “with dignity as opposed to viewing themselves as victims… Their stories were about hope and the opportunity to improve their lives and to make a lasting contribution to their family through difficult working conditions.” Ornelas’s grandfather, José Guadalupe Rodriguez Fonseca, for example, shared stories of betterment and progress and spoke about working with honor in the fields of Salinas Valley. Ornelas continued, “Yes, the work was very difficult but my family members learned to navigate the arduous labor and took great pride in their skill, work, and production of vegetables.” Some former braceros shared stories of using the experience in the program as a “launching pad” to greater opportunities in the agricultural industry.

The Bracero Program ended in 1964 but today the H-2A program is recruiting thousands of Mexican farmworkers. Section 218 of the Immigration and Nationality Act authorizes the lawful admission into the United States of temporary, nonimmigrant workers (H-2A workers) to perform agricultural labor or services of a temporary or seasonal nature. Ornelas posed the question, “So how far have we ultimately come since the labor crisis in 1942?” During the current pandemic, farm workers are deemed essential while many don’t have permanent legal status.

Ornelas, who concurrently teaches history at Willow Glen High School while working at Stanford, has the objective of helping young students critically consider issues surrounding H-2A guest worker status in the context of lessons learned from the Bracero Program. Ultimately, he has the goal of providing instruction that is more culturally inclusive. To help realize this goal, he recommends the following resources for use in schools: the 12-minute film , the , and the primary sources of the at Stanford.

During the Q&A, a teacher in Colorado mentioned that she is teaching about agricultural workers through a virtual agricultural field and interviews. Ornelas reacted with enthusiasm, saying “I am fascinated by your work.” In a post-webinar conversation, Ornelas stated that it was immensely gratifying for him to hear about the work already being done by teachers to heighten students’ awareness of the contribution of agricultural workers past and present. I also learned that Ornelas’s grandfather José Guadalupe Rodriguez Fonseca had died unexpectedly just a few days prior to the webinar. My hope is that the of this webinar will help to keep his memory alive and to help preserve the legacy of braceros.

91�Թ� is grateful to the at 91�Թ� for co-sponsoring this webinar. Special appreciation is extended to Sabrina Ishimatsu, Event Coordinator, 91�Թ�, for planning this webinar, and to Jonas Edman, Instructional Designer, 91�Թ�, for moderating.

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Reflecting on a Childhood Shaped by Immigration Policy

Last year, the Iranian Revolution of 1979 marked its 40th anniversary. In 91�Թ�’s newest Scholars Corner video offering, “The Iranian Revolution,” discusses Iran and the Iranian Revolution, noting the influence of Iran regionally and in the United States, the significance and impact of the Iranian Revolution, and the Iranian Revolution’s causes and effects. He also emphasizes the fight for democracy throughout Iran’s history of revolutions and today.

In his lecture, Dr. Milani addresses several questions, including why Americans should be interested in Iran and the Iranian Revolution in the first place. Dr. Milani reflects, “I think we should learn about Iran, and we should teach about Iran because Iran is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. It was one of the earliest empires… If that’s not enough, Iran has been an absolutely essential part of the Middle East for the last century. Virtually everything that has happened in Iran has prefigured the developments in the region.” He continues by noting that “In the Cold War period, Iran was one of the staunchest allies of the United States. And since 1979, Iran has been one of the staunchest foes of the United States. So historically we need to understand Iran, and essentially we need to understand Iran if we are to understand what is happening in the Middle East and what has happened in the Middle East in the last 40 years.”

This video lecture was designed for high school and community college levels and is recommended for courses in world history, political science, and world affairs. An accompanying teacher’s guide includes activities that draw upon the content and perspectives from Dr. Milani’s lecture. The organizing questions that students are encouraged to consider are:

• What is a revolution?
• What were the successes and failures of the Iranian Revolution?
• How did the Iranian Revolution impact or contribute to events in the Middle East, the United States, and the world?
• How is the Iranian Revolution similar and different from other revolutions?
• What are some of the challenges of writing about a historical event like the Iranian Revolution?

Lastly, 91�Թ� recommends that teachers and students examine the resources available at the , which is directed by Dr. Milani. Also, 91�Թ� encourages teachers and student to visit 91�Թ�’s Scholars Corner webpage, which features many other videos of scholars affiliated with the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies (FSI) discussing contemporary issues and research in their fields of expertise.